Underdrains

Underdrains comprise a length of perforated pipe embedded into a layer of reservoir aggregate. They are an optional component of bioretention systems, stormwater planters, swales and soil cells used to support urban trees. Their design varies according to the drainage requirements of the installation, and the available maintenance access.

Underdrains for exfiltrating practices

The pipe within the drain should be elevated from the base to promote infiltration of the water stored beneath. The depth of this internal water storage should be sized according to the desired drainage time and the infiltration rate of the native soils below. An alternative design configuration permits the head of water to be stored by using an upturned outflow pipe.

• At least one pair of vertical cleanout pipes/wells should be included in the design, for inspection and periodic flushing of accumulated sediment. As most hydro-jetting apparatus used for this has some trouble accommodating narrow 90 deg bends, it is important that both ends of a perforated pipe be connected with a pair of 45 deg elbows/Y connectors instead.

Clean out spacing

Pipe internal diameter (mm)	Maximum distance between cleanouts (m)
100	15
200 or greater	30

In a bioretention facility, after the rooting depth of the plants has been accommodated, the reservoir gravel layer can be increased for storage. Reservoir aggregate has a void ratio of 0.4, whilst most bioretention filter media may have a void ratio of 0.3 or lower. In some cases where the underdrain layer has sufficient depth to accommodate it, a larger bore perforated pipe (e.g. ≥ 300 mm) may be used to add further storage capacity. Ultimately this idea may result in the use of infiltration chambers to create significant reservoir storage beneath a planted area. Be sure to check with manufacturers about the compatibility of their systems with trees.

Spacing drainage pipes to reduce groundwater mounding

The yellow box represents the recommended hydraulic conductivity of bioretention filter media

In most LID underdrain applications, lateral drains should be spaced between 5 - 6 m apart.

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This recommendation is supported by an analysis of Hooghoudt's equation in relation to loamy or clayey native soils, where K_media>>K_soil, finds the first term of the numerator negligible, so that the original equation: $Drain\ spacing={\sqrt {\frac {8K_{soil}H\left(D_{i}-D_{d}\right)\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)+4K_{soil}\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)^{2}}{q}}}$ may be simplified to: $Drain\ spacing={\sqrt {\frac {4K_{media}\left(D_{d}-D_{w}\right)^{2}}{q}}}$

Where:

• K_media is expressed in m/day
• D_d is the depth to the drain pipe (m)
• D_w is the minimum acceptable depth to the water table during infiltration event
• q is the inflow volume expressed as a depth over the entire surface (m)

Example

During a 25 mm storm event, a bioretention cell receives concentrated flow from a catchment 20 times larger than its own footprint (25 x 20 = 500 mm = 0.5 m). The bioretention cell comprises 0.6 m filter media (K = 2.4 m/day), laid over 0.6 m clear, coarse reservoir gravel. The pipes are laid within the reservoir, 0.9 m below the surface. The system is designed to fill entirely during the rainstorm event. i.e. Depth to water table = 0 m.: $Drain\ spacing={\sqrt {\frac {4\times 2.4\ m/day\left(0.9\ m-0\ m\right)^{2}}{0.5\ m/day}}}=6\ m$

Underdrains for non-exfiltrating practices

Below ground

Where a stormwater planter or biofiltration cell is contained within a concrete box or completely lined to prevent infiltration, the perforated pipe should be bedded on a thin layer of fine aggregate. This thin layer is to hold the pipe in place during construction, and to permit free ingress of accumulated water through holes on the underside of the pipe. As storage in a non-infiltrating practice is predominantly through soil/water tension, the depth of reservoir should be minimised to just accommodate the pipe. A pair of vertical clean out pipes/wells should be included in the design, for inspection and periodic flushing of accumulated sediment. As most hydro-jetting apparatus used for this has some trouble accommodating narrow 90 deg bends, it is important that both ends of a perforated pipe be connected with a pair of 45 deg elbows/Y connectors instead.

Above ground

Where possible the underdrain pipe should be designed without any bends in order to facilitate easy maintenance. Otherwise see advice above regarding connectors.

• To promote infiltration the base of the gravel reservoir and the underdrain pipe should be horizontal to optimize distribution of the water within.
• Where drainage or conveyance to a downstream facility is a greater priority, the base of the reservoir and the underdrain pipe may have a gradient of up to 1-2%.

Maintenance and inspection

Schematic of pipes and connectors

Diagram of hydrojetting cleaning apparatus

• To permit access by cameras or cleaning apparatus, 90 degree connectors must not be used in subterranean underdrains. Instead 2 x 45 degree connectors, or preferably 3 x 30 degree connectors should be used instead.
• The recommended distances between clean outs is based on advice for filter beds in the Ontario Building Code. However, the access capabilities of difference apparatus and contractors varies and designers are advised to take advice from maintenance operators in this matter.

For the same reason, dual walled perforated pipes with smooth internal walls are necessary to reduce the potential snagging of maintenance equipment.

Wells

• Wells, of 100 - 150 mm diameter perforated pipe, should extend to the bottom of the facility.
• The exposed tops of all wells should be fitted with lockable caps.

Material specifications

Pipes

Pipes are available with perforations on just one side, these should be situated on the lower half of the pipe. Pipes with 360° perforations should have a strip of geotextile or membrane placed over the pipe to reduce the migration of fines from overlying media.

Perforated pipes are a common component of underdrains used in bioretention, permeable pavements, infiltration trenches and exfiltration systems.

Pipes should be manufactured in conformity with the latest standards by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) or ASTM International.

• Perforated pipes should be continuously perforated, smooth interior HDPE or PVC.
  • Wherever possible pipes should be ≥200 mm internal diameter to reduce potential of freezing and to facilitate push camera inspections and cleaning with jet nozzle equipment.
  • Smooth interior facilitates inspection and maintenance activities; internal corrugations can cause cameras or hydrojetting apparatus to become snagged.
  • A perforated pipe with many rectangular slots has better drainage characteristics than a pipe with similar open area provided by fewer circular holes .
• Non-perforated pipes should be used for conveyance of stormwater to and from the facility, including overflow. It is good practice to extend the solid pipe approximately 300 mm within the reservoir or practice to reduce the potential for native soil migration into the pipe.

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  Pipe with slotted perforations

• 

  Perforated pipes awaiting installation, note the 45 degree couplings used to facilitate push camera inspection and jet nozzle cleaning.

See also: Flow through perforated pipe

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Reservoir gravel

Note the uniform size and angularity of this clear stone sample. Note also that the fragments all appear to have a film of fine particles adhering; this material would be improved by being washed prior to use.

This article gives recommendations for aggregate to be used to store water for infiltration. This is usually called 'clear stone' at aggregate yards.

To see an analysis of Ontario Standard Specifications for granular materials, see OPSS aggregates.

For advice on decorative surface aggregates see Stone

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Gravel used for underdrains in bioretention, infiltration trenches and chambers, and exfiltration trenches should be 20 or 50 mm, uniformly-graded, clean (maximum wash loss of 0.5%), crushed angular stone that has a porosity of 0.4.

The clean wash to prevent rapid accumulation of fines from the aggregate particles in the base of the reservoir. The uniform grading and the angularity are important to maintain pore throats and clear voids between particles. (i.e. achieve the porosity). Porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the size, gradation and angularity of the particles . See jar test for on-site verification testing protocols.

Gravel with structural requirements should also meet the following criteria:

• Minimum durability index of 35
• Maximum abrasion of 10% for 100 revolutions and maximum of 50% for 500 revolutions

Standard specifications for the gradation of aggregates are maintained by ASTM D2940

• 

  The highest porosity is found in uniformly graded aggregate, as there are no smaller particles to occupy the inter-particle pores.

• 

  Higher permeability is found in larger, angular, uniformly graded aggregate. This is due to larger pore sizes and lower tortuosity.

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Choker course

medium sized granular, free from fines

In bioretention systems a choker layer of ≥ 100 mm depth is the recommended method to prevent migration of finer filter media into the underlying storage reservoir aggregate. These same mid-sized granular materials are recommended for use in Stormwater planter underdrains and may be useful in the fine grading of foundations courses for permeable pavements.

Suitable materials include:

High performance bedding (HPB)

Clean, angular aggregate screened to between 6 and 10 mm. Widely available and designed specifically for drainage applications. Free from fines by definition.

HL 6

Is a clean, angular aggregate screened between 10 and 20 mm. Free from fines by definition.

Pea Gravel

Rounded natural aggregate, screened between 5 and 15 mm, and washed free from fines.

In most scenarios, a geotextile layer is unnecessary and has been associated with rapid decline and clogging in some circumstances.

Geotextiles

The properties of geotextiles vary widely.

See Clogging for notes on their application in LID structures.

Geotextiles can be used to prevent downward migration of smaller particles in to larger aggregates, and slump of heavier particles into finer underlying courses. Geotextiles are commonly used on low strength soils (CBR<4). The formation of biofilm on geotextiles has also been shown to improve water quality:

• By degrading petroleum hydrocarbons
• By reducing organic pollutant and nutrient concentrations
• When installing geotextiles an overlap of 150 - 300 mm should be used.

Material specifications should conform to OPSS 1860 for Class II geotextile fabrics . Note when expansive clays are present, a non-infiltrating design may be necessary. If used, geotextile socks around perforated pipes should conform to ASTM D6707 with minimum water flow rate conforming to ASTM D4491 (12,263 L/min/m² at 5 cm head).

• Fabrics should be woven monofilament or non-woven needle punched.
• Woven slit film and non-woven heat bonded fabrics should not be used, as they are prone to clogging.

In choosing a product, consider:

1. The maximum forces that will be exerted on the fabric (i.e., what tensile, tear and puncture strength ratings are required?),
2. The load bearing ratio of the underlying native soil (i.e. is the geotextile needed to prevent downward migration of aggregate into the native soil?),
3. The texture (i.e., grain size distribution) of the overlying and underlying materials, and
4. The suitable apparent opening size (AOS) for non-woven fabrics, or percent open area (POA) for woven fabrics, to maintain water flow even with sediment and microbial film build-up.

Recommended criteria for selection of geotextile fabric

Percent soil/filter media passing 0.075 mm (#200 sieve)	Non-woven fabric apparent opening size (AOS, mm)	Woven fabric percent open area (POA, %)	Permittivity (sec-1)
>85	≤ 0.3	-	0.1
50 - 85	≤ 0.3	≥ 4	0.1
15 - 50	≤ 0.6	≥ 4	0.2
5 - 15	≤ 0.6	≥ 4	0.5
≤ 5	≤ 0.6	≥ 10	0.5

Performance research

http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/4/1595/htm

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Alternative Technology

Smart drain is a polymer ribbon-like material with capillary drains on the underside; it's use has recently been demonstrated in bioretention. It's low profile may make it particularly well suited to non-infiltrating practices, such as Stormwater planters.

Ribbon-like drainage material

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The period between the maximum water level and the minimum level (dry weather or antecedent level).

The rate at which stormwater percolates into the subsoil measured in inches per hour.

Soil, sand and minerals washed from land into water, usually after rain. They pile up in reservoirs, rivers and harbors, destroying fish-nesting areas and holes of water animals and cloud the water so that needed sunlight might not reach aquatic plans. Careless farming, mining and building activities will expose sediment materials, allowing them to be washed off the land after rainfalls.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

The void ratio (e) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. It is closely related to the concept of porosity (n) where porosity is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. e = Volume of voids/Volume of solids = n/(1-n)

A shallow excavated surface depression containing prepared filter media, mulch, and planted with selected vegetation.

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

A parameter that describes the capability of a medium to transmit water.

The engineered soil component of bioretention cell or dry swale designs, typically with a high rate of infiltration and designed to retain contaminants through filtration and adsorption to particles.

Low Impact Development. A stormwater management strategy that seeks to mitigate the impacts of increased urban runoff and stormwater pollution by managing it as close to its source as possible. It comprises a set of site design approaches and small scale stormwater management practices that promote the use of natural systems for infiltration and evapotranspiration, and rainwater harvesting.

The upper surface of the zone of saturation, except where the surface is formed by an impermeable body.

Subsurface water level which is defined by the level below which all the spaces in the soil are filled with water; The entire region below the water table is called the saturated zone.

The land draining to a single reference point (usually a structural BMP); similar to a subwatershed, but on a smaller scale.

A vegetated practice that collects and treats stormwater through sedimentation and filtration. Contributions to water cycle/water balance are through evapotranspiration only; no infiltration.

The slow movement of water into or through a soil or drainage system.

Penetration of water through the ground surface.

Filter fabric that is installed to separate dissimilar soils and provide runoff filtration and contaminant removal benefits while maintaining a suitable rate of flow; may be used to prevent fine-textured soil from entering a coarse granular bed, or to prevent coarse granular from being compressed into underlying finer-textured soils.

Soil particles with a diameter less than 0.050 mm.

The natural ground material characteristic of or existing by virtue of geographic origin.

Gravel, or crushed stone of various size gradations (i.e., diameter), used in construction; void forming material used as bedding and runoff storage reservoirs and underdrains in stormwater infiltration practices.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

Relating to the properties, distribution and effects of water on and below the earth’s surface, and in the atmosphere.

Gravel, or crushed stone of various size gradations (i.e., diameter), used in construction; void forming material used as bedding and runoff storage reservoirs and underdrains in stormwater infiltration practices.

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

Refers to the conditions in which an organism lives and survives or the conditions in which an organism resides. These conditions can be described as aspects of a “physical”, “social” or an “economic” environment, depending on the perspective perceived by the observer.