Swales

This article is about installations designed to capture and convey surface runoff along a vegetated channel.

Overview

Swales are linear landscape features consisting of a drainage channel with gently sloping sides. Underground they may be filled with engineered soil and/or contain a water storage layer of coarse gravel material. Two variations on a basic swale are recommended as low impact development strategies, although using a combination design of both may increase the benefits:
Bioswales are sometimes referred to as 'dry swales', 'vegetated swales', 'water quality swales' or 'inline bioretention'. This type of structure is similar to a bioretention cell but with a long linear shape (surface area typically >2:1 length:width )
Enhanced Grass Swales are a lower maintenance alternative, but generally have lower stormwater management potential. The enhancement over a basic grass swale is in the addition of check dams to slow surface water flow and create small temporary pools of water which can infiltrate the underlying soil.

Swales are an ideal technology for:

• Sites with long linear landscaped areas, such as parking lots
• Connecting with one or more other types of LID

Types of Swales

Property	Bioswale	Enhanced Grass Swale
Surface water	Minimal Any surface flow can be slowed with check dams	Ponding is encouraged with check dams
Engineered soil	Biomedia required	Amendment preferable when possible
Underdrain	Common	Uncommon
Maintenance	Medium to high	Low
Stormwater benefit	High	Medium
Biodiversity benefit	Increased with native planting	Lower

The fundamental components of a swale are:

• Graded channel
• Planting

Additional components may include:

• Biomedia - an engineered soil mix
• Underdrain with clean out and inspection ports
• Impermeable membrane to prevent infiltration to soils below
• Check dams

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  Bioswale?

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Planning Considerations

Planning Content

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Design

Pre-treatment and inlets

For more detail see article on Pre-treatment and inlets

To minimize erosion and maximize the functionality of the swale, sheet flow of surface water should be directed into the side of the BMP. Vegetated filter strips and shallow side slopes are ideal. Alternatively, a series of curb inlets can be employed, where each has some form of flow spreading incorporated. Single point inflow can cause increased erosion and sedimentation which will damage vegetation and contribute to BMP failure. Again, flow spreading devices can mitigate these processes, where concentrated point inflow is required.

Underdrains

Underdrains comprise a length of perforated pipe embedded into a layer of reservoir aggregate. They are an optional component of bioretention systems, stormwater planters, swales and soil cells used to support urban trees. Their design varies according to the drainage requirements of the installation, and the available maintenance access.

Underdrains for infiltrating practices

The perforated pipe within the drain should be elevated from the base to promote infiltration of the water stored beneath. The depth of this internal water storage reservoir should be sized to capture and infiltrate the design storm event runoff volume based on the desired drainage time and the design infiltration rate of the native soils below. An alternative design configuration is to install the perforated pipe on the base of the practice and using an upturned outflow pipe to permit the required head of water to be stored.

• Underdrain access structures, which may be maintenance holes or vertical standpipes connected to the perforated pipe, must be included in the design for periodic inspection and flushing of the perforated pipe. Negotiating 90 degree bends will be troublesome for most push camera and jet nozzle cleaning equipment, so it is preferable that 45 degree pipe couplings be used instead.

Clean out spacing

Pipe internal diameter (mm)	Maximum distance between cleanouts (m)
100	15
200 or greater	30

In some cases where the underdrain layer has sufficient depth to accommodate it, a larger diameter perforated pipe (e.g. ≥ 300 mm) may be used to add further storage capacity to a bioretention or a bioswale project. Ultimately this idea may result in the use of infiltration chambers or other void-forming structures to create significant reservoir storage beneath a bioretention filter media bed. Be sure to check with manufacturers about the compatibility of their systems with trees.

Underdrains for non-infiltrating practices

Below ground

Where a stormwater planter or biofiltration cell is contained within a concrete box or completely lined to prevent infiltration, the perforated pipe should be bedded on a thin layer of fine aggregate. This thin layer is to hold the pipe in place during construction, and to permit free ingress of accumulated water through holes on the underside of the pipe. As storage in a non-infiltrating practice is predominantly through soil/water tension, the depth of reservoir should be minimised to just accommodate the pipe. A pair of vertical clean out pipes/wells should be included in the design, for inspection and periodic flushing of accumulated sediment. As most hydro-jetting apparatus used for this has some trouble accommodating narrow 90 deg bends, it is important that both ends of a perforated pipe be connected with a pair of 45 deg elbows/Y connectors instead.

Above ground

Where possible the underdrain pipe should be designed without any bends for easy inspection and maintenance. Otherwise see advice above regarding connectors.

• To optimize water distribution and promote infiltration the base of the storage reservoir and the underdrain pipe should be graded level.
• Where drainage or conveyance to a downstream facility is a greater priority, the base of the reservoir and the underdrain pipe may have a gradient of up to 1-2%.

Maintenance and inspection

Schematic of pipes and connectors

Diagram of hydrojetting cleaning apparatus

• To permit access by cameras or cleaning apparatus, 90 degree connectors must not be used in subterranean underdrains. Instead 2 x 45 degree connectors, or preferably 3 x 30 degree connectors should be used (see figure to the right).
• For the same reason, dual walled perforated pipes with smooth internal walls are highly recommended to reduce the potential snagging of maintenance equipment.
• The recommended distances between clean outs is based on advice for filter beds in the Ontario Building Code. However, the access capabilities of difference apparatus and contractors varies and designers are advised to take advice from maintenance operators in this matter.

• Wells

Material specifications

Pipes

Pipes are available with perforations on just one side, these should be situated on the lower half of the pipe. Pipes with 360° perforations should have a strip of geotextile or membrane placed over the pipe to reduce the migration of fines from overlying media.

Perforated pipes are a common component of underdrains used in bioretention, permeable pavements, infiltration trenches and exfiltration systems.

Pipes should be manufactured in conformity with the latest standards by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) or ASTM International.

• Perforated pipes should be continuously perforated, smooth interior HDPE or PVC.
  • Wherever possible pipes should be ≥200 mm internal diameter to reduce potential of freezing and to facilitate push camera inspections and cleaning with jet nozzle equipment.
  • Smooth interior facilitates inspection and maintenance activities; internal corrugations can cause cameras or hydrojetting apparatus to become snagged.
  • A perforated pipe with many rectangular slots has better drainage characteristics than a pipe with similar open area provided by fewer circular holes .
• Non-perforated pipes should be used for conveyance of stormwater to and from the facility, including overflow. It is good practice to extend the solid pipe approximately 300 mm within the reservoir or practice to reduce the potential for native soil migration into the pipe.

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  Pipe with slotted perforations

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  Perforated pipes awaiting installation, note the 45 degree couplings used to facilitate push camera inspection and jet nozzle cleaning.

See also: Flow through perforated pipe

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Reservoir gravel

Note the uniform size and angularity of this clear stone sample. Note also that the fragments all appear to have a film of fine particles adhering; this material would be improved by being washed prior to use.

This article gives recommendations for aggregate to be used to store water for infiltration. This is usually called 'clear stone' at aggregate yards.

To see an analysis of Ontario Standard Specifications for granular materials, see OPSS aggregates.

For advice on decorative surface aggregates see Stone

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Gravel used for underdrains in bioretention, infiltration trenches and chambers, and exfiltration trenches should be 20 or 50 mm, uniformly-graded, clean (maximum wash loss of 0.5%), crushed angular stone that has a porosity of 0.4.

The clean wash to prevent rapid accumulation of fines from the aggregate particles in the base of the reservoir. The uniform grading and the angularity are important to maintain pore throats and clear voids between particles. (i.e. achieve the porosity). Porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the size, gradation and angularity of the particles . See jar test for on-site verification testing protocols.

Gravel with structural requirements should also meet the following criteria:

• Minimum durability index of 35
• Maximum abrasion of 10% for 100 revolutions and maximum of 50% for 500 revolutions

Standard specifications for the gradation of aggregates are maintained by ASTM D2940

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  The highest porosity is found in uniformly graded aggregate, as there are no smaller particles to occupy the inter-particle pores.

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  Higher permeability is found in larger, angular, uniformly graded aggregate. This is due to larger pore sizes and lower tortuosity.

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Choker layer

medium sized granular, free from fines

In bioretention systems a choker layer of ≥ 100 mm depth is the recommended method to prevent migration of finer filter media into the underlying storage reservoir aggregate. These same mid-sized granular materials are recommended for use in Stormwater planter underdrains and may be useful in the fine grading of foundations courses for permeable pavements.

Suitable materials include:

High performance bedding (HPB)

Clean, angular aggregate screened to between 6 and 10 mm. Widely available and designed specifically for drainage applications. Free from fines by definition.

HL 6

Is a clean, angular aggregate screened between 10 and 20 mm. Free from fines by definition.

Pea Gravel

Rounded natural aggregate, screened between 5 and 15 mm, and washed free from fines.

In most scenarios, a geotextile layer is unnecessary and has been associated with rapid decline and clogging in some circumstances. Geotextiles may be used to separate the underdrain from native soils on the vertical faces.

Alternative technology

Smart Drain is a polymer ribbon-like material with capillary drains on the underside; it's use has recently been demonstrated in bioretention. It's low profile may make it particularly well suited to non-infiltrating practices, such as Stormwater planters.

Ribbon-like drainage material

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Check dams

Check dams are a feature of enhanced swales. They promote infiltration and evaporation by promoting limited ponding. To design check dams into a swale:

1. The height of each dam is determined by the depth of ponded water that will infiltrate in 24 hours. The infiltration may be into the native soils, into biomedia, or some other soil amendment may be proposed in the design.
2. Dams are usually installed between 10-20 m along the swale. They are distributed such that the crest of each dam is at approximately the same elevation as the toe of the upstream dam. If the slope along the swale varies, so should the distance between the dams.

The objective of these design recommendations are to maximize the distribution of ponded water along the whole BMP. Detailed design may require iteration of the dam heights and distances along each section of a long swale.

• Dams may be constructed of any resilient and waterproof material, including: rock gabions, earth berms, coarse aggregate or rip-rap, concrete, metal or wood.
• Energy dissipation and erosion control measures should be installed in the 1 - 2 m downstream of each dam. Examples include large aggregate or turf reinforcement.

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  Distance between dams determined by equaling the crest of each dam, with the elevation of the toe of the upstream dam.

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Performance

Performance Content

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Incentives and Credits

In Ontario

City of Mississauga
The City of Mississauga has a stormwater management credit program which includes RWH as one of their recommended site strategies[1].

LEED BD + C v. 4

SITES v.2

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See Also

• Bioretention Cells
• Check Dams
• Trees

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External Links

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The portion of water precipitated onto a catchment area, which then flows as surface discharge from the catchment area past a specified point.

Water from rain, snow melt, or irrigation that flows over the land surface.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

A stormwater management strategy that seeks to mitigate the impacts of increased urban runoff and stormwater pollution by managing it as close to its source as possible. It comprises a set of site design approaches and small scale stormwater management practices that promote the use of natural systems for infiltration and evapotranspiration, and rainwater harvesting.

Linear bioretention cell designed to convey, treat and attenuate stormwater runoff. The engineered filter media soil mixture and vegetation slows the runoff water to allow sedimentation, filtration through the root zone, evapotranspiration, and infiltration into the underlying native soil.

Linear bioretention cell designed to convey, treat and attenuate stormwater runoff. The engineered filter media soil mixture and vegetation slows the runoff water to allow sedimentation, filtration through the root zone, evapotranspiration, and infiltration into the underlying native soil.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

Refers to a system that accepts all of the flow from a drainage area and conveys larger event flows through an overflow outlet.

A shallow excavated surface depression containing prepared filter media, mulch, and planted with selected vegetation.

Emphasis on improving the value of particular aspects of water and related land resources.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

Vegetated, open channels designed to convey, treat and attenuate runoff. Design variations range from simple grass channels, which are designed primarily for conveyance to more complex treatment and volume reduction designs like enhanced grass swales, and dry swales or bioswales.

Structures constructed of a non-erosive material, such as suitably sized aggregate, wood, gabions, riprap, or concrete; used to slow runoff water. Can be employed in practices such as bioswales and enhanced grass swales.

Low Impact Development. A stormwater management strategy that seeks to mitigate the impacts of increased urban runoff and stormwater pollution by managing it as close to its source as possible. It comprises a set of site design approaches and small scale stormwater management practices that promote the use of natural systems for infiltration and evapotranspiration, and rainwater harvesting.

Linear bioretention cell designed to convey, treat and attenuate stormwater runoff. The engineered filter media soil mixture and vegetation slows the runoff water to allow sedimentation, filtration through the root zone, evapotranspiration, and infiltration into the underlying native soil.

A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to curb and channel, or as a pretreatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterized by a broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

Structures constructed of a non-erosive material, such as suitably sized aggregate, wood, gabions, riprap, or concrete; used to slow runoff water. Can be employed in practices such as bioswales and enhanced grass swales.

Best management practice. State of the art methods or techniques used to manage the quantity and improve the quality of wet weather flow. BMPs include: source, conveyance and end-of-pipe controls.

Deposition of material of varying size, both mineral and organic away from its site of origin by the action of water, wind, gravity or ice.

Settling-out or deposition of particulate matter suspended in runoff.

A perforated pipe used to assist the draining of soils.

The engineered soil component of bioretention cell or dry swale designs, typically with a high rate of infiltration and designed to retain contaminants through filtration and adsorption to particles.

A vegetated practice that collects and treats stormwater through sedimentation and filtration. Contributions to water cycle/water balance are through evapotranspiration only; no infiltration.

The slow movement of water into or through a soil or drainage system.

Penetration of water through the ground surface.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

Soil, sand and minerals washed from land into water, usually after rain. They pile up in reservoirs, rivers and harbors, destroying fish-nesting areas and holes of water animals and cloud the water so that needed sunlight might not reach aquatic plans. Careless farming, mining and building activities will expose sediment materials, allowing them to be washed off the land after rainfalls.

An underlying bed filled with aggregate or other void-forming fill material that temporarily stores stormwater before infiltrating into the native soil or being conveyed by an underdrain pipe.

Filter fabric that is installed to separate dissimilar soils and provide runoff filtration and contaminant removal benefits while maintaining a suitable rate of flow; may be used to prevent fine-textured soil from entering a coarse granular bed, or to prevent coarse granular from being compressed into underlying finer-textured soils.

Soil particles with a diameter less than 0.050 mm.

The natural ground material characteristic of or existing by virtue of geographic origin.

Gravel, or crushed stone of various size gradations (i.e., diameter), used in construction; void forming material used as bedding and runoff storage reservoirs and underdrains in stormwater infiltration practices.

A broad category of particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates, and available in various particulate size gradations.

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

The porosity (n) of a mixture is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the total or bulk volume of the mixture. It is closely related to the concept of void ratio (e) where void ratio is the ratio of the volume of void-space to the volume of solids. n = Volume of voids/Total volume of mixture = e/(1+e)

Abiotic transfer of water vapour to the atmosphere.

The practice of adding organic material, such as mulch or compost to topsoil to improve fertility, and tilling of the native soils to reverse compaction and restore its water retaining capacity.

Includes the protection of soil from dislocation by water, wind or other agents.

Rainwater harvesting.

Refers to the conditions in which an organism lives and survives or the conditions in which an organism resides. These conditions can be described as aspects of a “physical”, “social” or an “economic” environment, depending on the perspective perceived by the observer.